Sulla
c. 138 BC - 78 BC
The Social War
The Social War was a war between Rome and her Italian Allies between 91 BC and 88 BC. The Roman conquest of Italy in the fourth and third centuries BC led to alliances between Rome and Italian communities; they became independent city-states but had the right to demand money and soldiers so could therefore not go to war. In exchange for this, they would receive a portion of captured winnings and the lands taken as well as benefitting from the set-up of trade infrastructure in the Mediterranean.
In the second century BC, Roman politicians began to redirect the profits of war to enrich just Rome so the allies protested; however, this was ignored by the Romans so the allies declared war on Rome. The Roman policy of land distribution had led to great inequalities of land-ownership and therefore wealth. Another cause of the Social War was the assassination of Marcus Livius Drusus whose reforms would have given the allies Roman citizenship and thus giving them more influence in politics. After Drusus' assassination, his reforms were declared invalid which angered the allies who allied with each other against Rome.
The twelve allies formed an independent nation, Italia, and formed a capital, Italica. They created their own army from troops who had served in the Roman armies; they were as equally trained as the Romans and had a force of over 100,000 available to them. The Romans managed to win the war due to the skill of two generals, Lucius Cornelius Sulla and Gaius Marius, in 89 BC.
In the same year, the Senate proposed ‘lex Julia’ which gave Roman citizenship to all Latins and Italians who had remained loyal to Rome. This was offered to communities rather than to individuals so regional governments had to accept these. ‘Lex Plautia Papiria’ was added as a supplement which said that a registered male of an allied state could gain Roman citizenship by presenting himself to a Roman praetor within 60 days of the passing of the law. The war had quickly come to an end by 88 BC with the passing of these laws.
In the second century BC, Roman politicians began to redirect the profits of war to enrich just Rome so the allies protested; however, this was ignored by the Romans so the allies declared war on Rome. The Roman policy of land distribution had led to great inequalities of land-ownership and therefore wealth. Another cause of the Social War was the assassination of Marcus Livius Drusus whose reforms would have given the allies Roman citizenship and thus giving them more influence in politics. After Drusus' assassination, his reforms were declared invalid which angered the allies who allied with each other against Rome.
The twelve allies formed an independent nation, Italia, and formed a capital, Italica. They created their own army from troops who had served in the Roman armies; they were as equally trained as the Romans and had a force of over 100,000 available to them. The Romans managed to win the war due to the skill of two generals, Lucius Cornelius Sulla and Gaius Marius, in 89 BC.
In the same year, the Senate proposed ‘lex Julia’ which gave Roman citizenship to all Latins and Italians who had remained loyal to Rome. This was offered to communities rather than to individuals so regional governments had to accept these. ‘Lex Plautia Papiria’ was added as a supplement which said that a registered male of an allied state could gain Roman citizenship by presenting himself to a Roman praetor within 60 days of the passing of the law. The war had quickly come to an end by 88 BC with the passing of these laws.
Gaining Power
In 88 BC, Sulla was elected consul and was given command to fight against Mithridates in the east who had murdered 80,000 Roman and Italian citizens by the Senate. However, Sulpicius Rufus, a tribune, passed a motion through the Plebeian Council which gave Marius the command instead. In order to keep his command, Sulla retrieved his army that he had used to fight in the Social War that had not yet been disbanded. He ordered them to follow him to Rome where he was joined by Pompeius Rufus. They quickly seized the city and murdered many of Marius’ supporters, including Sulpicius Rufus. Marius, however, managed to flee.
As consul, Sulla still had military control so he used the military assembly to annul Sulpicius Rufus’ legislation and he also proclaimed that all business should go there, rather than to the tribal assembly or the Plebeian Council. Having done all this, he left Rome to fight against Mithridates.
Following this, Cinna and Octavius were appointed as consuls for 87 BC. Many of those who had fled Rome under Sulla had now returned, including Marius. Censorinus murdered him and cut off his head, which he took to the other consul, Cinna, where it was placed on the rostra in front of the forum. Many other heads were added to these. Marius then seized he vacant consular position but soon died.
By 85 BCC, the consuls Cinna and Carbo had begun recruiting an army from across Italy to face the returning Sulla, who had defeated Mithridates by 84 BC. The following year, Sulla returned to Italy where he fought against the much larger Senatorial army, who also had assistance from the Samnites, however, in 82 BC, Sulla was able to achieve the decisive victory at the Battle of the Colline Gate. Just three days after this battle, he ordered eight thousand of the prisoners taken to be killed. He also settled his veterans on the grounds of those who had rebelled.
As consul, Sulla still had military control so he used the military assembly to annul Sulpicius Rufus’ legislation and he also proclaimed that all business should go there, rather than to the tribal assembly or the Plebeian Council. Having done all this, he left Rome to fight against Mithridates.
Following this, Cinna and Octavius were appointed as consuls for 87 BC. Many of those who had fled Rome under Sulla had now returned, including Marius. Censorinus murdered him and cut off his head, which he took to the other consul, Cinna, where it was placed on the rostra in front of the forum. Many other heads were added to these. Marius then seized he vacant consular position but soon died.
By 85 BCC, the consuls Cinna and Carbo had begun recruiting an army from across Italy to face the returning Sulla, who had defeated Mithridates by 84 BC. The following year, Sulla returned to Italy where he fought against the much larger Senatorial army, who also had assistance from the Samnites, however, in 82 BC, Sulla was able to achieve the decisive victory at the Battle of the Colline Gate. Just three days after this battle, he ordered eight thousand of the prisoners taken to be killed. He also settled his veterans on the grounds of those who had rebelled.
Dictatorship
At this point, Sulla was given the dictatorship for as long as he wanted to retain the position. He issued proscriptions which named 9,000 opponents to him, mainly those who had been supporters of Marius and Cinna. The senate confiscated the land and wealth of the proscribed, auctioning it to make Sulla and his supporters vastly rich. However, he chose to spare the nephew of Marius, and the son-in-law of Cinna, Julius Caesar. The Senate erected a statue to him with the inscription ‘Cornelius Sulla Imperator Felix’ (Imperator Cornelius Sulla ‘the lucky-one’). He made a significant number of reforms:
- increased membership in the senate to 600 (from 300)
- abolished plebeian council
- limited the veto right of tribunes
- ineligibility to (other) offices by tribunes
- introduced minimum ages for holding office (29 for quaestorship, 39 for praetorship, 42 for consulship)
- introduced formal ten-year-gap between office holding
- curtailed the power of provincial magistrates
- abolished corn distributions
- established 7 criminal courts with senators as judges
In making these reforms, Sulla strengthened the power of the Senate in the Republic, however, he had shown that it was possible to gain power through military influence. At the end of 81 BC, just a year into his unlimited dictatorship, Sulla resigned, disbanding his legions and re-establishing standard consular government. He stood for consul the following year but in 79 BC, he retired from his office to a villa in the countryside, where he died a year later.
- increased membership in the senate to 600 (from 300)
- abolished plebeian council
- limited the veto right of tribunes
- ineligibility to (other) offices by tribunes
- introduced minimum ages for holding office (29 for quaestorship, 39 for praetorship, 42 for consulship)
- introduced formal ten-year-gap between office holding
- curtailed the power of provincial magistrates
- abolished corn distributions
- established 7 criminal courts with senators as judges
In making these reforms, Sulla strengthened the power of the Senate in the Republic, however, he had shown that it was possible to gain power through military influence. At the end of 81 BC, just a year into his unlimited dictatorship, Sulla resigned, disbanding his legions and re-establishing standard consular government. He stood for consul the following year but in 79 BC, he retired from his office to a villa in the countryside, where he died a year later.