Historical Context
The Gracchi Brothers
Tiberius Gracchus (168 BC - 133 BC) and Gaius Gracchus (154 BC - 121 BC) were brothers who caused much disorder in the Republic of Rome. At this period of time, there was a class struggle due to changes in demand and supply; there were many huge farms set-up from colonised land which led to decreased subsistence farming and the rise of the 'Money Economy'. This created huge polarisations between the rich and poor, leading to crime, due to the power of Roman capitalists and aristocrats.
Tiberius Gracchus annoyed the senate by bypassing them in agreeing to a peace treaty with the Numantii, who had revolted in Spain as land was taken from them by the rich as they could not defend themselves. The peace this created led to political support for Gracchus from the families of soldiers who were no longer required to risk their lives; this support resulted in Tiberius Gracchus being appointed as People's tribune. Once in position, Gracchus vetoed all daily functions in Rome, thus bring a stand-still to the Republic. However, at the end of his yearly term, Gracchus lost his sacrosanctity (legal protection from attack and prosecution), the senate were so annoyed that they told the plebs that Gracchus wanted to declare himself as king (hated by the Romans due to their treatment under Etruscan leaders) so the people viciously assaulted him, killing him.
The importance of Gracchus was that these were revolutionary proposals and radical behaviour for a Roamn politician to partake in. The representation of a particular social class was also an alien concept at this time. Tiberius Gracchus was the first to address the growing problems in Rome and tried to solve the economic crisis in the countryside through agrarian (land) reforms.
Tiberius Gracchus annoyed the senate by bypassing them in agreeing to a peace treaty with the Numantii, who had revolted in Spain as land was taken from them by the rich as they could not defend themselves. The peace this created led to political support for Gracchus from the families of soldiers who were no longer required to risk their lives; this support resulted in Tiberius Gracchus being appointed as People's tribune. Once in position, Gracchus vetoed all daily functions in Rome, thus bring a stand-still to the Republic. However, at the end of his yearly term, Gracchus lost his sacrosanctity (legal protection from attack and prosecution), the senate were so annoyed that they told the plebs that Gracchus wanted to declare himself as king (hated by the Romans due to their treatment under Etruscan leaders) so the people viciously assaulted him, killing him.
The importance of Gracchus was that these were revolutionary proposals and radical behaviour for a Roamn politician to partake in. The representation of a particular social class was also an alien concept at this time. Tiberius Gracchus was the first to address the growing problems in Rome and tried to solve the economic crisis in the countryside through agrarian (land) reforms.
The Social War
The Social War was a war between Rome and her Italian Allies between 91 BC and 88 BC. The Roman conquest of Italy in the fourth and third centuries BC led to alliances between Rome and Italian communities; they became independent city-states but had the right to demand money and soldiers so could therefore not go to war. In exchange for this, they would receive a portion of captured winnings and the lands taken as well as benefitting from the set-up of trade infrastructure in the Mediterranean.
In the second century BC, Roman politicians began to redirect the profits of war to enrich just Rome so the allies protested; however, this was ignored by the Romans so the allies declared war on Rome. The Roman policy of land distribution had led to great inequalities of land-ownership and therefore wealth. Another cause of the Social War was the assassination of Marcus Livius Drusus whose reforms would have given the allies Roman citizenship and thus giving them more influence in politics. After Drusus' assassination, his reforms were declared invalid which angered the allies who allied with each other against Rome.
The twelve allies formed an independent nation, Italia, and formed a capital, Italica. They created their own army from troops who had served in the Roman armies; they were as equally trained as the Romans and had a force of over 100,000 available to them. The Romans managed to win the war due to the skill of two generals, Lucius Cornelius Sulla and Gaius Marius.
In the second century BC, Roman politicians began to redirect the profits of war to enrich just Rome so the allies protested; however, this was ignored by the Romans so the allies declared war on Rome. The Roman policy of land distribution had led to great inequalities of land-ownership and therefore wealth. Another cause of the Social War was the assassination of Marcus Livius Drusus whose reforms would have given the allies Roman citizenship and thus giving them more influence in politics. After Drusus' assassination, his reforms were declared invalid which angered the allies who allied with each other against Rome.
The twelve allies formed an independent nation, Italia, and formed a capital, Italica. They created their own army from troops who had served in the Roman armies; they were as equally trained as the Romans and had a force of over 100,000 available to them. The Romans managed to win the war due to the skill of two generals, Lucius Cornelius Sulla and Gaius Marius.
Marius and Sulla
Gaius Marius was a notable Populares and a well-known military commander. In 107 BC, Marius became consul so introduced his 'Marian reforms' as he feared barbarian invasions. His reforms were:
The Lex Julia (Julian Law) also came into use at this time. It offered full citizenship to all Latin and Italian communities who had not revolted in the Social War. However, Roman citizenship and the right to vote were reliant on the physical appearance on voting day. After 88 BC, candidates regularly paid expenses (at least partly) for their supporters to travel to Rome so that they could vote.
Sulla won the consular election of 88 BC for his involvement in the ending of the Social War. As consul, Sulla was prepared to go and fight the first Mithridatic War in the East at the request of the senate. However, Marius wanted to lead the Roman armies against King Mithridates VI and convinced Sulpicius, a tribune, to call an assembly and revert the decision on Sulla's command. This angered Sulla so he marched on Rome with his most loyal legions; this was the first time that a general had ever entered the city limits with an army.
After consolidating his position, he declared Marius and his allies as enemies of the state and addressed the senate, portraying himself as a victim. Sulla strengthened the senate's power and restructured the city's politics before leaving Rome to fight Mithridates.
In 87 BC, whilst Sulla was fighting in the East, Marius returned to Rome, with the aid of Lucius Cornelius Cinna, and took control of the city. He declared Sulla's reforms as invalid and officially exiled Sulla. The following year, he was appointed consul with Cinna but died within a fortnight so Cinna was left in sole control of Rome.
Sulla returned to Italy in 83 BC whereupon he defeated the Marian forces at the Battle of Colline Gate, with the help of Pompey and Crassus. At the beginning of 81 BC, the senate appointed Sulla as dictator with no limit set on his time in office. This was unusual as dictators were only ever appointed for periods of six-months in a crisis; it was therefore setting a precedent for dictatorship.
Sulla ordered the deaths of around 1,500 nobles in his proscriptions; aiding somebody who had been proscribed was punishable by death and it is believed that around 9,000 people died because of the proscriptions. The senate confiscated the land and wealth of the proscribed, auctioning it to make Sulla and his supporters vastly rich.
Sulla sought to strengthen the senate so weakened the power of the tribunes; they lost the power to create laws, hold any other office after tribuneship and veto any acts of the senate. Sulla also altered the jury from the nobles to the senators, re-affirmed the principle of waiting for ten years between being re-elected to any office and established a system where consuls and praetors would command a provincial army as a governor for the year after they had left the office.
At the end of 81 BC, just a year into his unlimited dictatorship, Sulla resigned, disbanding his legions and re-establishing standard consular government. He stood for consul the following year before retiring. He died in 78 BC.
- No requirement of land to serve in army. Thus offering employment as soldiers and also the opportunity to gain spoils of war. Recruited for 16 years (later changed to 20).
- Re-organised the cohort so that there were sixty centuries per cohort. The century fought as a unit and carried all resources so became known as the "Marian mules".
- Offered retirement benefits in the form of land grants so new lands would more quickly become Romanised.
- Allies were offered full citizenship.
The Lex Julia (Julian Law) also came into use at this time. It offered full citizenship to all Latin and Italian communities who had not revolted in the Social War. However, Roman citizenship and the right to vote were reliant on the physical appearance on voting day. After 88 BC, candidates regularly paid expenses (at least partly) for their supporters to travel to Rome so that they could vote.
Sulla won the consular election of 88 BC for his involvement in the ending of the Social War. As consul, Sulla was prepared to go and fight the first Mithridatic War in the East at the request of the senate. However, Marius wanted to lead the Roman armies against King Mithridates VI and convinced Sulpicius, a tribune, to call an assembly and revert the decision on Sulla's command. This angered Sulla so he marched on Rome with his most loyal legions; this was the first time that a general had ever entered the city limits with an army.
After consolidating his position, he declared Marius and his allies as enemies of the state and addressed the senate, portraying himself as a victim. Sulla strengthened the senate's power and restructured the city's politics before leaving Rome to fight Mithridates.
In 87 BC, whilst Sulla was fighting in the East, Marius returned to Rome, with the aid of Lucius Cornelius Cinna, and took control of the city. He declared Sulla's reforms as invalid and officially exiled Sulla. The following year, he was appointed consul with Cinna but died within a fortnight so Cinna was left in sole control of Rome.
Sulla returned to Italy in 83 BC whereupon he defeated the Marian forces at the Battle of Colline Gate, with the help of Pompey and Crassus. At the beginning of 81 BC, the senate appointed Sulla as dictator with no limit set on his time in office. This was unusual as dictators were only ever appointed for periods of six-months in a crisis; it was therefore setting a precedent for dictatorship.
Sulla ordered the deaths of around 1,500 nobles in his proscriptions; aiding somebody who had been proscribed was punishable by death and it is believed that around 9,000 people died because of the proscriptions. The senate confiscated the land and wealth of the proscribed, auctioning it to make Sulla and his supporters vastly rich.
Sulla sought to strengthen the senate so weakened the power of the tribunes; they lost the power to create laws, hold any other office after tribuneship and veto any acts of the senate. Sulla also altered the jury from the nobles to the senators, re-affirmed the principle of waiting for ten years between being re-elected to any office and established a system where consuls and praetors would command a provincial army as a governor for the year after they had left the office.
At the end of 81 BC, just a year into his unlimited dictatorship, Sulla resigned, disbanding his legions and re-establishing standard consular government. He stood for consul the following year before retiring. He died in 78 BC.
Rhetoric Skills
The Three Rhetorical Appeals were ethos (reputation), pathos (feelings and emotions) and logos (information/evidence); these were they key points that would need to be considered when making speeches. However, it was also important to consider the aim (the speaker or writer's goal), the audience (person or group of people being addressed), the subject (topic of debate) and the medium (method of delivery).