The Peloponnesian War
431 BC - 404 BC
Thucydides (c. 460 BC - 400 BC)
Thucydides served as a commander in northern Greece until he was exiled for losing an outpost to the Spartans. He presented an account of the Peloponnesian War based almost-entirely in chronological order. His account includes versions of direct speeches which, although clearly being created from scratch, address the motives of the participants and offer interpretations of behaviour and nature.
Causes
Following the rebuff of Cimon's reinforcements for Sparta against the helots in 462 BC, hostilities with Sparta and its allies had become more and more frequent. Following indecisive battles in the early 440s BC, Perikles engineered a peace treaty in 445 BC. It was designed to maintain the current balance of powers in Greece for thirty years, thus preserving Athenian dominance in the Delian League.
Peace quickly broke down. In 443 BC, Perikles' biggest rival, Thucydides, was ostracised. This meant that Perikles was elected as strategos for fifteen consecutive years. However, he was criticised for the way in which he handled the revolt of Samos (441 BC - 439 BC). He chose a military response to the revolt and the struggle lasted three campaigning seasons, with heavy losses on both sides. The Spartans threatened war on the Athenians due to their support of rebellious allies.
Other factors include: the antagonists ambitions for hegemony, fear of each other's power, concern for freedom from interference by a strong rival, the economic sanctions put on Megara (an ally of Sparta) by Athens and the Athenian blockade of its former ally, Potidea (who sought aid from Corinth, a principal ally of Sparta).
Peace quickly broke down. In 443 BC, Perikles' biggest rival, Thucydides, was ostracised. This meant that Perikles was elected as strategos for fifteen consecutive years. However, he was criticised for the way in which he handled the revolt of Samos (441 BC - 439 BC). He chose a military response to the revolt and the struggle lasted three campaigning seasons, with heavy losses on both sides. The Spartans threatened war on the Athenians due to their support of rebellious allies.
Other factors include: the antagonists ambitions for hegemony, fear of each other's power, concern for freedom from interference by a strong rival, the economic sanctions put on Megara (an ally of Sparta) by Athens and the Athenian blockade of its former ally, Potidea (who sought aid from Corinth, a principal ally of Sparta).
Athenian Strategy
Perikles devised the Athenian strategy for the Peloponnesian War in his role as strategos. The Athenians would avoid set-battles with the powerful Spartan infantry and would attack Spartan territory from the sea. He predicted that the superior resources of Athenian money and men would win a war of attrition against the Spartans.
Spartan Invasions
In 431 BC, Sparta invaded Attica for the first-time in the war and destroyed property in the countryside. The Athenians withdrew to within their city defences. The demolition enraged the country-dwellers who saw their property being destroyed and the citizen militia had to be prevented from attacking the Spartans directly in rage. The Spartans only ever invaded Attica for a period of forty days as they needed to re-supply and prevent helot uprisings in Laconia.
However, epidemic struck in 430 BC due to the great number of Athenians living in the city. This crippled the Athenian naval expeditions. Thucydides recalls that "the good and the bad were dying indiscriminately" so the Athenian relationship with the gods was hampered. Perikles himself died in 429 BC. Despite this, Potidea was compelled to surrender in 430 BC, there were two major naval victories at Naupactus in 429 BC and the revolt on Lesbos, led by Mytilene, was forcefully put down in 428 BC - 427 BC.
However, epidemic struck in 430 BC due to the great number of Athenians living in the city. This crippled the Athenian naval expeditions. Thucydides recalls that "the good and the bad were dying indiscriminately" so the Athenian relationship with the gods was hampered. Perikles himself died in 429 BC. Despite this, Potidea was compelled to surrender in 430 BC, there were two major naval victories at Naupactus in 429 BC and the revolt on Lesbos, led by Mytilene, was forcefully put down in 428 BC - 427 BC.
Success of Cleon
Cleon captured 120 Spartans and 170 allied troops at Pylos in 425 BC. This was important as it was the first time in military history that the Spartans had been known to surrender rather than to continue fighting - "come home either with this [shield] or on it" (Spartan proverb). The Spartans offered favourable peace terms but Cleon urged the Athenian Assembly to reject the offer, leading Thucydides to describe him as "the most violent of all the citizens".
Brasidas' Tactics
The Spartan general, Brasidas, opted for unexpected tactics; he attacked the Athenian strongholds in northern Greece in 424 BC. Sparta managed to capture the strategically important Amphipolis. This was important as it had gold and silver mines and was a major source of timber for building the Athenian warships.
Peace of Nicias (421 BC)
Following Brasidas' success in northern Greece, Cleon was dispatched to deal with him. However, both were killed before their armies met in 422 BC. Nicias arranged a peace the following year that re-set the balance of powers to those set in 431 BC. However, the Spartan allies, Corinth and Boetia, refused to sign the peace treaty.
Alcibiades (c. 450 BC - 404 BC), who had been raised in the household of Perikles, rallied support in Athens and put together a new alliance with Argos and other hostile Peloponnesian city-states. Argos was positioned on the main north-south route from Spartan territory so was a source of irritation. However, Sparta defeated the new alliance in 418 BC at the battle of Montinea.
Alcibiades (c. 450 BC - 404 BC), who had been raised in the household of Perikles, rallied support in Athens and put together a new alliance with Argos and other hostile Peloponnesian city-states. Argos was positioned on the main north-south route from Spartan territory so was a source of irritation. However, Sparta defeated the new alliance in 418 BC at the battle of Montinea.
Melos (416 BC)
Athens besieged Melos in 416 BC and offered the Melians the opportunity to join their alliance voluntarily or face destruction, they refused. All the men were killed and the women and children were sold into slavery. In this episode, Thucydides portrays Athenian motives with the amoral politics of the use of force.
The Sicily Expedition (415 BC - 413 BC)
Alcibiades encouraged the Assembly to launch an attack on Sicily in 415 BC by promising that they would gain riches and it would prevent any cities on the island from allying with Sparta. He was officially responding to a request for aid from Segesta against Syracuse. However, Alcibiades had created enemies in Athens and they recalled him before the expedition could take place and accused him of mocking the Eleusinian Mysteries and vandalising the Herms; he deserted to Sparta.
Alcibiades' desertion to Sparta left the Athenian without a decisive leader for their campaign. The indecisiveness of Nicias undermined the initial Athenian successes. Demosthenes' reinforcements proved incapable of defeating Syracuse and the Athenian forces were destroyed in a naval battle in 413 BC.
In the aftermath of the Athenian defeat, Alcibiades encouraged the Spartans to set-up a permanent camp in Attica at Decelea. This meant that they were now capable of raiding Athens throughout the year. This forced a greater reliance upon imports for the Athenians. When 20,000 slaves deserted the silver mines to Sparta, Athens' wealth was crippled, making imports more challenging. In light of the disasters that had recently occurred to Athens, a board of ten officials was appointed to run Athens instead of the Assembly.
Alcibiades' desertion to Sparta left the Athenian without a decisive leader for their campaign. The indecisiveness of Nicias undermined the initial Athenian successes. Demosthenes' reinforcements proved incapable of defeating Syracuse and the Athenian forces were destroyed in a naval battle in 413 BC.
In the aftermath of the Athenian defeat, Alcibiades encouraged the Spartans to set-up a permanent camp in Attica at Decelea. This meant that they were now capable of raiding Athens throughout the year. This forced a greater reliance upon imports for the Athenians. When 20,000 slaves deserted the silver mines to Sparta, Athens' wealth was crippled, making imports more challenging. In light of the disasters that had recently occurred to Athens, a board of ten officials was appointed to run Athens instead of the Assembly.
Revolt & Recovery
Persia began to give financial aid to Sparta and its allies in order to build a fleet. Led by Chios, many of Athens' allies revolted from the Delian League. They were urged to do this by Alcibiades who was now in Ionia on behalf of the Spartans. This threatened the Athenian trade routes of imported grain from Egypt and the fertile shores of the Black Sea.
Athens used its emergency funds, stored in the acropolis, to rebuild its fleets and train new crews to man them. By 412 BC - 411 BC, the fleet was strong enough to prevent Corinthian aid to Chios, besiege it and to win other battles along the Anatolian coast.
Athens used its emergency funds, stored in the acropolis, to rebuild its fleets and train new crews to man them. By 412 BC - 411 BC, the fleet was strong enough to prevent Corinthian aid to Chios, besiege it and to win other battles along the Anatolian coast.
The Oligarchic Coup (411 BC)
Alcibiades offered the Athenians an alliance with Persian satraps, and financial backing for them, if Athens agreed to overthrow democracy and to instil an oligarchy in its place. So, in 411 BC, the Assembly turned power over to a group of four hundred men. However, the Athenian fleet, composed mostly of poorer citizens, wanted democracy to be re-established and threatened force against the oligarchy. Therefore, a mixed democracy and oligarchy was created and it was called the 'Constitution of the Five Thousand', which recalled all those who had been exiled previously. Thucydides refers to it as the "best form of government".
Restoration of Democracy
Under the command of the recalled Alcibiades, the Athenian fleet defeated the Spartans at Cyzicus in 410 BC. Following the intercept of a demoralising Spartan message that stated their weakness, the Athenians felt strong enough to fully re-instate democracy. The Spartans once again made a peace proposal but it was refused once more by a confident Assembly. The trade-routes were re-established and some of the allies who had revolted were compelled to return to the alliance.
The End of the War
Lysander, the Spartan commander, rebuilt the fleet with Persian funds and defeated the Athenian fleet at Notion in 406 BC; Alcibiades was held responsible for this and was exiled. Despite an Athenian victory at Arginusai in 406 BC, the naval commanders were condemned to death for alleged negligence as they were unable to collect any survivors due to the turbulent waters and weather. Another offer of peace from the Spartans was rejected by the Assembly. Lysander secured yet more funds from the Persians and strengthened the Spartan fleet further, so much so that the Athenian fleet was eliminated at Aegospotami in 405 BC. Athens was then blockaded and surrendered to Sparta in 404 BC. Sparta set-up a new system of government, 'The Thirty Tyrants'.